Checklist for pre-ride inspections to avoid mechanical issues

2016 Mazda MX-5

1931 Ford Model A roadster

A roadster (also spider, spyder) is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character.^[1][2] Initially an American term for a two-seat car with no weather protection, its usage has spread internationally and has evolved to include two-seat convertibles.

The roadster was also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500, in the 1950s and 1960s. This type of racing car was superseded by rear-mid-engine cars.

The term "roadster" originates in the United States, where it was used in the 19th century to describe a horse suitable for travelling.^[3][4] By the end of the century, the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles.^[5] In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: "an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck."^[6] Since it has a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car.^{[4][7]: 258} Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.^[7]: 257

In the United Kingdom, historically, the preferred terms were "open two-seater" and "two-seat tourer".^[8][9] Since the 1950s, the term "roadster" has also been increasingly used in the United Kingdom. It is noted that the optional 4-seat variant of the Morgan Roadster would not be technically considered a roadster.^{[citation needed]}

The term "spider" or "spyder," sometimes used in names for convertible models, is said to come from before the automobile era. Some 19th-century lightweight horse-drawn phaetons had a small body and large wooden wheels with thin spokes; they were nicknamed "spiders" because of their appearance; the nickname was transferred to sports cars, although they did not look similar.^[10]

In 1962, Chevrolet introduced the Monza Spyder, a turbocharged version of its Corvair compact, available as a convertible or coupe. Although not a true 2 passenger vehicle, it featured upgraded suspension and other equipment to classify it as a "sporty car."

Auto racing began with the first earnest contests in 1894 in Europe, and in 1895 in the United States. Some of the earliest race cars were purpose-built or stripped for the greatest speed, with minimal or no bodywork at all, leading to a body style aptly named 'speedster'. The cut-down speedster body-style really took form in the 1900s. After removing most of the body (and fenders), an empty platform on the ladder-frame chassis was mounted with one or two seats, a gas tank, and spare tyres.^[11]

American manufacturers Mercer and Stutz started offering ready-made racing speedsters, intentionally built to be driven to race(-track), raced, and driven back by their owner – essentially the first track day cars.^[11]

• 1890s to 1920s speedsters
• 
  Ransom Olds' 1896/1897 "Pirate" racer was one of the first speedsters.
• 
  Barney Oldfield and Henry Ford with Oldfield's 999 speedster, 1902
• 
  1909 model T speedster – announced winner of the 1909 Ocean to Ocean race, disqualified because of an engine change
• 
  1910 Mercer 35R Raceabout (1912 specimen)
• 
  The 1912 Stutz Bear Cat / Bearcat, (1914 shown), available doorless through 1916

The immediate predecessor to the roadster was the runabout, a body style with a single row of seats and no doors, windshield, or other weather protection. Another predecessor was the touring car, similar in body style to the modern roadster except for its multiple rows of seats. By the 1920s roadsters were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains.^[4]

Roadster bodies were offered on automobiles of all sizes and classes, from mass-produced cars like the Ford Model T and the Austin 7 to extremely expensive cars like the Cadillac V-16, the Duesenberg Model J and Bugatti Royale.

• 1920s to 1950s roadsters
• 
  1926 Ford Model T roadster
• 
  1932 Duesenberg J Murphy-bodied roadster
• 
  1937 Delahaye 135MS roadster
• 
  1949 MG TC open two-seater marketed in USA as a roadster

By the 1970s "roadster" could be applied to any two-seater car of sporting appearance or character.^[12] In response to market demand they were manufactured as well-equipped as convertibles^[13] with side windows that retracted into the doors. Popular models through the 1960s and 1970s were the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB and Triumph TR4.

• 1950s to 1980s roadsters
• 
  1973 MGB
• 
  Alfa Romeo Spider
• 
  1983 Mercedes-Benz 380SL
• 
  1987 Cadillac Allanté

The highest selling roadster is the Mazda MX-5, which was introduced in 1989.^[14][15][16] The early style of roadster with minimal weather protection is still in production by several low-volume manufacturers and fabricators, including the windowless Morgan Roadster, the doorless Caterham 7 and the bodyless Ariel Atom.

• 1990s to present day roadsters
• 
  BMW Z3
• 
  Pontiac Solstice
• 
  Mazda MX-5
• 
  Porsche Boxster
• 
  MG Cyberster

The term roadster was used to describe a style of racing cars competing in the AAA/USAC Championship Cars series (the IndyCar equivalents of the time) from 1952 to 1969. The roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks.^[17]

One story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a "roadster" is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500. They had it covered in a corner of their shop. If they were asked about their car they would try and obscure its importance by saying that it was just their (hot rod) "roadster". After the Indianapolis racer was made public, the "roadster" name was still attached to it.^{[citation needed]}

Frank Kurtis built the first roadster to race and entered it in the 1952 Indianapolis 500. It was driven by Bill Vukovich who led for most of the race until a steering failure eliminated him. The Howard Keck owned team with Vukovich driving went on to win the 1953 and 1954 contests with the same car. Bob Sweikert won the 1955 500 in a Kurtis after Vukovich was killed while leading. A. J. Watson,^[18] George Salih and Quinn Epperly were other notable roadster constructors. Watson-built roadsters won in 1956, 1959 – 1964 though the 1961 and 1963 winners were actually close copies built from Watson designs. The 1957 and 1958 winner was the same car built by Salih with help by Epperly built with a unique placement of the engine in a 'lay down' mounting so the cylinders were nearly horizontal instead of vertical as traditional design dictated.^[19] This gave a slightly lower center of mass and a lower profile.

Roadsters continued to race until the late 1960s, although they became increasingly uncompetitive against the new rear-engined racing cars. The last roadster to complete the full race distance was in 1965, when Gordon Johncock finished fifth in the Wienberger Homes Watson car. The last roadster to make the race was built and driven by Jim Hurtubise in the 1968 race and dropped out early.^[20]

Some pavement midget roadsters were built and raced into the early 1970s but never were dominant.^[21]

• Barchetta, a related two-seater body style designed primarily for racing
• Convertible, the general term to describe vehicles with retractable roofs and retractable side windows
• Roadster utility
• Tonneau cover, a protective cover for the seats in an open car

• Media related to Roadsters at Wikimedia Commons

A car dealership, or car dealer, is a business that sells new or used cars, at the retail level, based on a dealership contract with an automaker or its sales subsidiary. Car dealerships also often sell spare parts and automotive maintenance services.

In the United States, car dealerships have historically been an important source of state and local sales taxes. They have considerable political influence and have lobbied for regulations that guarantee their survival and profitability. By 2010, all US states had laws that prohibited manufacturers from side-stepping independent car dealerships and selling cars directly to consumers. By 2009, most states imposed restrictions on the creation of new dealerships to compete with incumbent dealerships.

Economists have characterized these regulations as a form of rent-seeking that extracts rents from manufacturers of cars, increases costs for consumers, and limits entry of new car dealerships while raising profits for incumbent car dealers. Research shows that as a result of these laws, retail prices for cars are higher than they otherwise would be.^[1][2]

The early cars were sold by automakers to customers directly or through a variety of channels, including mail order, department stores, and traveling representatives.^[1] For example, Sears made its first attempt at selling a gasoline-engined chain-drive high-wheeler in 1908 through its mail-order catalog and starting in 1951 the Allstate through select its stores and the catalog.^[3][4]

The first car dealership was opened in 1889 by Fred Koller in Reading, Pennsylvania and sold cars manufactured in Cleveland, Ohio. This would have been the first dealership solely dedicated to automobiles, as opposed to horse-drawn carriages. ^[5]

Today, direct sales by an automaker to consumers are limited by most states in the U.S. through franchise laws that require new cars to be sold only by licensed and bonded, independently owned dealerships.^[6] The first woman car dealer in the United States was Rachel "Mommy" Krouse who in 1903 opened her business, Krouse Motor Car Company, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.^[7]

The number of car dealerships in the US peaked in 1927 at 53,125 and steadily decreased over the next decades. By 1960, there were 33, 658 dealerships; by 1980, 23,379; and by 2001, 22,007.^[1]

Car dealerships are usually franchised to sell and service vehicles by specific companies. They are often located on properties offering enough room to have buildings housing a showroom, mechanical service, and body repair facilities, as well as to provide storage for used and new vehicles. Many dealerships are located out of town or on the edge of town centers. An example of a traditional single proprietorship car dealership was Collier Motors in North Carolina.^[8] Many modern dealerships are now part of corporate-owned chains with hundreds of locations.^[9] Dealership profits in the US mainly come from servicing, some from used cars, and little from new cars.^[10]

Most automotive manufacturers have shifted the focus of their franchised retailers to branding and technology. New or refurbished facilities are required to have a standard look for their dealerships and have product experts to liaise with customers.^[11][12] Audi has experimented with a hi-tech showroom that allows customers to configure and experience cars on 1:1 scale digital screens.^[13][14] In markets where it is permitted, Mercedes-Benz opened city centre brand stores.^[15]

Tesla Motors has rejected the dealership sales model based on the idea that dealerships do not properly explain the advantages of their cars, and they could not rely on third-party dealerships to handle their sales.^[16] However, in the United States, direct manufacturer auto sales are prohibited in almost every state by franchise laws requiring that new cars be sold only by dealers.^[17] In response, Tesla has opened city centre galleries where prospective customers can view cars that can only be ordered online.^[18][19] These stores were inspired by the Apple Stores.^[20] Tesla's model was the first of its kind, and has given them unique advantages as a new car company.^[21]

In economic theory, car dealerships can be characterized as franchisees and automobile manufacturers as franchisors. A franchise relationship can be beneficial to both parties, as the franchisee can sell a well-made and attractive product while the franchisor can rely on the franchisee to incur downstream costs and use its local relationships to sell more products and services.^[1]

The franchisor can act opportunistically by imposing constraints and burden on the franchisee after the latter has incurred sunk costs, such as investing in physical assets and building up a reputation with customers. The franchisor could for example require that cars be sold at low prices, and services be performed for little compensation. The franchisee could on the other hand act opportunistically by using its local monopoly to perform poor customer service, charge customers more, and pass those unnecessarily high costs to the franchisor.^[1][22]

Car dealerships have lobbied for regulations that increase the survival and profitability of car dealerships:^[1]

• By 2010, all US states had laws that prohibited manufacturers from side-stepping independent car dealers and selling cars to customers directly.
• By 2009, most states imposed restrictions on the creation of new dealerships to compete with incumbent dealerships.
• All states impose severe limits on the ability of a manufacturer to terminate a franchise relationship.
• Most states prevent manufacturers from engaging in "quantity forcing" whereby manufacturers require that dealers purchase vehicles that they had not ordered.
• Most states limit the ability of manufacturers to discriminate between car dealers (for example, by providing better terms to large car dealers with economies of scale or dealers that provide better customer service).
• Many state laws impose upon manufacturers the precise terms under which they must compensate dealers for the costs associated with warranty repairs (these can incentivize dealers to increase the price of repairs to customers).
• Most state laws require upon the termination of a dealership that manufacturers buy back the inventory, and special equipment and in some cases pay the rent of the dealer's facilities.

The issuance of new dealership licenses can be subject to geographical restriction; if there is already a dealership for a company in an area, no one else can open one. This has led to dealerships becoming in essence hereditary, with families running dealerships in an area since the original issuance of their license with no fear of competition or any need to prove qualification or consumer benefit (beyond proving they meet minimum legal standards), as franchises in most jurisdictions can only be withdrawn for illegal activity and no other reason.^[23]

Economists have characterized these laws as a form of rent-seeking that extracts rents from manufacturers of cars and increases costs for consumers of cars while raising profits for car dealers.^{[1][24][25][26]} Multiple studies have shown that regulations that protect car dealerships increase car costs for consumers and limit the profitability of manufacturers.^[27]

This has led to consumer campaigns for establishment or reform, which have been met by huge lobbying efforts by franchise holders. New companies trying to enter the market, such as Tesla, have been restricted by this model and have either been forced out or been forced to work around the franchise model, facing constant legal pressure.^[28]

According to a 2023 survey by the Sierra Club, two-thirds of US car dealerships did not have electric or hybrid vehicles for sale.^[29] Reasons for this include supply chain difficulties,^[29][30] as well as a need for car dealers to make substantial investments in new employee training and infrastructure to be able to sell, service and maintain electric vehicles.^[31]